BMC Infectious Diseases | Full text | How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on inanimate surfaces? A systematic review

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Table 1
Persistence of clinically relevant bacteria on dry inanimate surfaces.
Type of bacterium Duration of persistence (range) Reference(s)
Acinetobacter spp. 3 days to 5 months [18, 25, 28, 29, 87, 88]
Bordetella pertussis 3 – 5 days [89, 90]
Campylobacter jejuni up to 6 days [91]
Clostridium difficile (spores) 5 months [92–94]
Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. trachomatis ≤ 30 hours [14, 95]
Chlamydia psittaci 15 days [90]
Corynebacterium diphtheriae 7 days – 6 months [90, 96]
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis 1–8 days [21]
Escherichia coli 1.5 hours – 16 months [12, 16, 17, 22, 28, 52, 90, 97–99]
Enterococcus spp. including VRE and VSE 5 days – 4 months [9, 26, 28, 100, 101]
Haemophilus influenzae 12 days [90]
Helicobacter pylori ≤ 90 minutes [23]
Klebsiella spp. 2 hours to > 30 months [12, 16, 28, 52, 90]
Listeria spp. 1 day – months [15, 90, 102]
Mycobacterium bovis > 2 months [13, 90]
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 1 day – 4 months [30, 90]
Neisseria gonorrhoeae 1 – 3 days [24, 27, 90]
Proteus vulgaris 1 – 2 days [90]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6 hours – 16 months; on dry floor: 5 weeks [12, 16, 28, 52, 99, 103, 104]
Salmonella typhi 6 hours – 4 weeks [90]
Salmonella typhimurium 10 days – 4.2 years [15, 90, 105]
Salmonella spp. 1 day [52]
Serratia marcescens 3 days – 2 months; on dry floor: 5 weeks [12, 90]
Shigella spp. 2 days – 5 months [90, 106, 107]
Staphylococcus aureus, including MRSA 7 days – 7 months [9, 10, 16, 52, 99, 108]
Streptococcus pneumoniae 1 – 20 days [90]
Streptococcus pyogenes 3 days – 6.5 months [90]
Vibrio cholerae 1 – 7 days [90, 109]

Kramer et al. BMC Infectious Diseases 2006 6:130   doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-130

Overall, gram-negative bacteria have been described to persist longer than gram-positive bacteria [12,13]. Humid conditions improved persistence for most types of bacteria, such as Chlamydia trachomatis [14], Listeria monocytogenes [15], Salmonella typhimurium [15], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [16], Escherichia coli [17], or other relevant pathogens [18,19]. Only Staphylococcus aureus was found to persist longer at low humidity [16].

Low temperatures, e.g., 4°C or 6°C, also improved persistence of most types of bacteria, such Listeria monocytogenes [15], Salmonella typhimurium [15], MRSA [20], corynebacteria [21], Escherichia coli [17,22], Helicobacter pylori [23], and Neisseria gonorrhoeae [24].

The type of test material does not reveal a consistent result. Although some investigators report that the type of material has no influence on the persistence [25,26], other authors described a longer persistence on plastic [27,28], and others yet see a survival advantage on steel [29].

Other factors were rarely investigated and hence provide inconsistent results. Longer persistence has been described with higher inocula [28], in the presence of protein [13], serum [13,24], sputum [30], or without dust [10].

Persistence of clinically relevant fungi on dry inanimate surfaces.
Type of fungus Duration of persistence (range) Reference(s)
Candida albicans 1 – 120 days [31, 53, 99, 110]
Candida parapsilosis 14 days [110]
Torulopsis glabrata 102 – 150 days [31]

Kramer et al. BMC Infectious Diseases 2006 6:130   doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-130

 

 

Table 3
Persistence of clinically relevant viruses on dry inanimate surfaces.
Type of virus Duration of persistence (range) Source
Adenovirus 7 days – 3 months [32, 34, 38–41, 111]
Astrovirus 7 – 90 days [38]
Coronavirus 3 hours [112, 113]
SARS associated virus 72 – 96 hours [114]
Coxsackie virus > 2 weeks [34, 111]
Cytomegalovirus 8 hours [115]
Echovirus 7 days [39]
HAV 2 hours – 60 days [35, 38, 41]
HBV > 1 week [116]
HIV > 7 days [117–119]
Herpes simplex virus, type 1 and 2 4.5 hours – 8 weeks [34, 111, 118, 120]
Influenza virus 1 – 2 days [39, 43, 121, 122]
Norovirus and feline calici virus (FCV) 8 hours – 7 days [42, 45]
Papillomavirus 16 > 7 days [123]
Papovavirus 8 days [118]
Parvovirus > 1 year [118]
Poliovirus type 1 4 hours – < 8 days [35, 118]
Poliovirus type 2 1 day – 8 weeks [34, 38, 111]
Pseudorabies virus ≥ 7 days [124]
Respiratory syncytial virus up to 6 hours [44]
Rhinovirus 2 hours – 7 days [33, 125]
Rotavirus 6 – 60 days [36 – 38, 41]
Vacciniavirus 3 weeks – > 20 weeks [34, 126]

Kramer et al. BMC Infectious Diseases 2006 6:130   doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-130

 

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Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/6/130/prepub

BMC Infectious Diseases | Full text | How long do nosocomial pathogens persist on inanimate surfaces? A systematic review.